The Red Scare that Started a Race—Sputnik at 60

Beep. Beep. Beep. Beep.

To some degree it seems silly how such a simple sound scared the hell out of Americans during the 1950s. Yet, during the Cold War, with a lot of nuclear weapons pointed at you on a hair trigger, one can sympathize.

It’s difficult to say exactly when America’s post World War II honeymoon ended. Maybe it was when the Soviets first developed the atomic bomb, or when they were on America’s heels with the development of the hydrogen bomb. The honeymoon probably did not end with one event or in one year, but most would agree it was definitely over by 1957.  In September of 1957, the Little Rock Crisis showed how difficult the struggle for civil rights would be. The next month would prove just as unnerving when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite, while America was asleep at the wheel in space development.

How did America lose to the communists in the race for Earth's first satellite? Let’s look at a (very) condensed summary of what led to the Sputnik moment.

Sputnik 1 (Photo Credit: NASA)

In 1952, the International Council of Scientific Unions established July 1, 1957 to December 31, 1958 as the International Geophysical Year (IGY) due to high solar activity. By 1954, the council drafted a resolution encouraging the development of an Earth satellite to be launched during the IGY. America announced, in mid-1955, that the U.S. would launch the first satellite in 1957 because of the IGY, but the Soviets would not let their main geopolitical rival just walk to victory. With the 40^th anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution in 1957, Soviet scientists and engineers began working on an artificial satellite by early 1956. Their efforts to create “Object D” quickly fell behind schedule, so Sputnik 1 was developed in the fear that America would beat the USSR.

However, during this time America was fumbling around. During the mid-1950s NASA did not exist, therefore space was largely a military enterprise. The 1955 decision to build an American satellite would become a competition between the Army, Navy, and Air Force. Whethner von Braun, who later developed the Saturn V, was with the Army at the time developing his Redstone rocket—and he was very confident that a modified Redstone rocket could launch a U.S. satellite in a relatively short order. After months of consideration, the Committee on Special Capabilities, the group that would pick which military branch would win the opportunity to launch a satellite, chose the Navy’s Vanguard rocket. It is safe to say that von Braun’s proposal was the most likely to succeed, but fears that America’s first satellite would be launched by German engineers shifted the opportunity to the Navy. This decision would haunt America.

Korolev (left) and von Braun (right) Drove the Soviet and American Early Space Efforts (Image Credit: BBC News)

As the U.S. Navy struggled to get the Vanguard rocket prepared for flight, the Soviet space scientists were making large strides. Sergei Korolev, the lead rocket designer for the USSR, had struggled to get his R-7 rocket flying successfully, but after a successful August 1957 flight of that rocket, his team was nearly ready to launch a satellite. Korolev’s team rushed to launch Sputnik, and on October 4, 1957 the world witnessed a communist victory in space technology.

America fell into a hysteria about Soviet capabilities shortly after Sputnik 1’s triumph. If the USSR could launch a satellite into Earth orbit, they could deliver nuclear weapons on American cities within minutes. Store shelves were raided in fear of a Soviet first strike against the U.S. Leaders like Lyndon Johnson and John Kennedy quickly pounced on the weak response by the Eisenhower administration. Many feared the repercussions of lost American prestige in the world. These fears were inflamed when the USSR launched Laika, the first dog in space, shortly after Sputnik 1. By December, the U.S. Navy was finally ready to launch a satellite, but their efforts quickly turned sour as the Vanguard rocket wobbled and crumbled into a ball of flame with millions of Americans watching.

The U.S. would finally succeed with Explorer 1 reaching orbit in January 1958—aboard a rocket built by von Braun’s team (Juno I rocket). In fact, von Braun's team could have launched a satellite much earlier, but political roadblocks stopped this from happening.    

"Kaputnik": America's First Attempt to Launch a Satellite (Photo Credit: National Air and Space Museum)

So, here we are 60 years after Sputnik. Looking back now, the success of Sputnik 1 really ignited the Space Race between the USSR and America. Great accomplishments in space followed this one game changing event. Would these accomplishments have happened without the Soviets beating America into space with a satellite or a human being in 1961? The answer: probably not. Without a Sputnik moment, the moon landing, humanity’s greatest achievement, may not have occurred or it would have been delayed significantly. To some degree Sputnik deserves credit for pushing two superpowers to rapidly develop space technologies that would eventually revolutionize the world. Sixty years ago, the world heard Sputnik beep from space as two geopolitical rivals raced for high ground. Today, we can go outside and look up as men and women from around the world orbit Earth on the International Space Station—a fitting tribute to the aluminum sphere that started it all.  

References:

https://history.nasa.gov/sputnik/

https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1957-001B

https://www.space.com/17888-first-satellite-sputnik-1-explained-infographic.html

“Space Race: The Epic Battle Between America and the Soviet Union for Domination of Space.” By Deborah Cadbury 

Cassini's Swan Song

In a few days the Cassini-Huygens probe, the long running Saturn investigator, will take its final bow by plunging into the planet itself. Talk about an exit. For 20 years, the probe has returned amazing images of the ringed beauty, but all good things must come to an end. Although other spacecraft have flown by the ringed planet, no probe has conducted such a detailed exploration of the Saturn system. Before Cassini transmits the final bits of data, let’s look at the mission and its impact on all of us.

Cassini-Huygens is a joint project of the European Space Agency (ESA), NASA, and the Italian space agency Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI) that was designed to peer into the scientific mysteries of Saturn and its moons. The project was the combination of two spacecraft—Cassini (the orbiter) and Huygens (the landing probe). Cassini carried a variety of experiments to study the Saturn system while Huygens was released to study Saturn’s moon Titan.  

Artist Illustration of Cassini (Image Credit: NASA)

On October 15, 1997, the Cassini-Huygens mission officially began by launching from Cape Canaveral using the Titan IVB Centaur rocket. Because the spacecraft was too heavy for a launch directly to the sixth planet, the spacecraft used several gravity assist maneuvers (flying around an object, typically the Sun or another planet to pick up speed) to reach its destination. It flew around or by the Sun, Venus, Earth, and Jupiter during these maneuvers. Finally, on June 30, 2004 the spacecraft reached Saturn, which was followed by a flyby of two moons, Titan and Dione, the same year.  

Huygens was also released in 2004, and the small probe began its journey to Titan. By January of the following year, the small lander descended through Titan’s atmosphere to learn more about the unexplored moon’s surface and chemical composition. After landing, the tiny lander spent 72 minutes on the surface before running out of battery power. Huygens sent back hundreds of photos, and remains the only landing of a human made object in the outer solar system. 

Huygens View of Titan (Photo Credit: NASA)

Cassini continued its mission and gave scientists a wealth of information about the Saturn system. Saturn’s moons were revealed to humanity not as cold desolate worlds, but as active and interesting environments that paralleled Earth in several ways. Titan, for example, has lakes, rivers, clouds, rain, and active geologic systems. Another moon, Enceladus, sprays icy particles from surface jets, and may contain a subsurface ocean capable of handling life. The probe didn't simply study these plumes from a distance, but actually flew through the plume to collect data. Observing Saturn’s rings has been another important scientific inquiry, and the exploration has yielded amazing information to scientists. Due to Cassini’s long stay around Saturn, much more science was accomplished than the relatively quick flybys of Pioneer 11 and the Voyager probes, thus leaving Uranus and Neptune as the only remaining planets without a long-term scientific investigation.

Cassini's Grand Finale Graphic (Image Credit: NASA)

Unfortunately, the Cassini-Huygens mission must come to an end. Although scientists would love to keep the mission going, fuel used for course correction and adjustment is running low. NASA is describing the final bit of the mission as the grand finale, which accurately sums up the end of the famous spacecraft. Beginning this April, the probe began a series of orbits designed to eventually end the mission. During these orbits, the spacecraft dove closer to the planet—including close encounters with the rings and dips into the upper atmosphere. Finally, on September 15, 2017, Cassini will dive into Saturn’s atmosphere to end the historic exploration. 

I remember one summer afternoon my parents took me to a planetarium to see a show—something I was undoubtedly begging for. That show happened to be about Cassini-Huygens, which was about to begin its encounter with Saturn. Walking away that day amazed wouldn’t describe my feelings completely. Cassini-Huygens grabbed my heart and never let go. So, in a few days, I’ll wake up a bit early just to watch a dear friend of mine send its last signal on NASA TV. My feelings will be bittersweet—grateful for the inspiration and knowledge Cassini-Huygens gave, but sad to say goodbye.            

Watch coverage of Cassini's final signals coming through on September 15 beginning 6:00 AM CST on NASA TV.  

Cassini's View of the Ringed Beauty (Photo Credit: NASA)

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To see more excellent photos from Cassini-Huygens, visit this link: https://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/galleries/images/

Sources:

https://saturn.jpl.nasa.gov/

https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/missions/cassini-huygens/

http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Science/Cassini-Huygens

https://www.space.com/38010-cassini-spacecraft-saturn-grand-finale.html

Taking it to the Streets

Advocating for a robust space program may seem daunting in many areas of the county. For example, I am from Central Illinois—an area where there are no highly visible NASA connections. Thus, attempting to convince an area dealing with the struggles of the Rust Belt economy that space exploration should receive billions more in funding can be rather difficult. Yet, even in this area, and I suspect other areas without highly visible space connections, there is an undercurrent of support for space exploration. 

Given my experience in politics and educational background in political science, advocating for space exploration largely depends on your audience. In the Rust Belt, arguments grounded in local economic benefits and national prestige may be better received than discussions about scientific advancements from space.  Speaking to people about space in Peoria, IL will likely differ from a discussion in Madison, WI. Obviously, there will be common themes and touching on these in every location won’t hurt, but certain areas of the nation require an argument tune-up.  

Project Apollo proved one thing: we can explore space. (Image Credit: NASA)

So, I have included an Op-Ed piece I wrote for my local newspaper advocating for an expansion of the space program by highlighting the benefits enjoyed through space development. This is by no means the only way to write an article advocating for space exploration, but it does give you a sense of what typically works in my community. If our space program is to expand, there must be frequent public pressure from grassroots space lovers. Writing newspaper opinion pages, social media posts, and letters to federal representatives can provide the pressure needed to kick-start the next great age of space exploration.

My advice is simple: target the message to your community, keep publicly pushing for space exploration, and organize fellow space enthusiasts to make the message truly resonate. Reaching the stars is only possible if people across the world band together to encourage the exploration of the final frontier.  

I hope this article helps or inspires you to advocate for space exploration in your community!

"A few weeks ago, like millions of other Americans, I attended a local Fourth of July parade and later watched the fireworks. While wandering around both events, something struck me that no controversial parade float could match.

It was subtle. In fact, without an interest in the subject, most people would have missed it entirely. Countless children were proudly wearing a shirt with the NASA logo or a space shuttle design. This observation persuades me to urge for a robust American space policy.

Although finding the exact payoff for every dollar spent on NASA has been elusive, many economic studies show a positive return. NASA projects typically demand people with advanced skills in science and technology, thus supporting thousands of high-paying jobs. With nearly $20 billion spent on NASA per year, those dollars support communities across the country. Even places without a NASA facility have businesses designing or creating parts for America’s space effort.

Thousands of NASA “spinoff” technologies have dramatically changed the health care, information technology and communication fields.

Yet the economic, technological and scientific advances pale in comparison to the intangible benefits of space exploration. Space inspires children across the globe to become the next generation of thinkers and innovators. Many inspired by space exploration pursue careers in STEM fields, bringing valuable skills to space centers, businesses, factories and farmlands across America. Exploring the final frontier also impresses the value of working together toward a common goal that is bigger than any individual. Rugged individualism does not typically lead to great triumphs, but collective action does.

As I watched the Independence Day fireworks, I couldn’t help but wonder how many of those kids wearing a NASA shirt would help enable economic prosperity, make a scientific breakthrough, or exploration of a distant world someday.

[Space exploration offers many benefits, but inspiring the next generation to accomplish great feats clearly leads the way.]" Published in the Peoria Journal Star 08/04/2017

The Earth and the Moon from Voyager 1. Humans have not traveled beyond the frame of this picture--let's change that. (Photo Credit: NASA)

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Note: The article text accompanied in this blog reflects the draft sent to the Peoria Journal Star. There were editorial changes made, understandably, but I believe the draft was better.  

Stuck in the Cave

For Earth Day of this year Bill Maher ran a piece on his HBO show entitled “New Rule: Make Earth Great Again.” When I finally saw the bit in June, I was writing a piece on the Saturn V, so I saved this critique until now. Essentially, Maher believes we should squash the idea of colonizing Mars because it gives us free rein to destroy Earth. Money used to conduct Mars landing missions and colonization were also targeted by Maher because the money could be spent repairing or improving Earth. Maher also stated that evolution had shaped humanity to thrive only on Earth, and he made clear his opposition to being a part of a multi-planetary species.

I know, that is a lot to absorb. Stated within The Space Endeavor's mission statement is the advocation of space colonization. And, as you can imagine, I have several issues with his line of thought. My goal here is take his key points, outlined in the first paragraph, and offer a strong rebuttal. 

Oh, and Buzz Aldrin is my spirit animal for this article.

Maybe you should ask Buzz about Mars, Bill. 

First, it should be stated that Mars is not a back-up planet for humanity, and destroying Earth is not a good idea. However, being a good custodian of Earth and hoping to colonize Mars are not mutually exclusive ideas. We can take care of Earth and have a permanent human presence on the fourth planet. Money is an often-cited excuse to oppose robust space exploration, but that argument falls short too. America is the wealthiest country in the world, which makes the U.S. more than capable of funding grand adventures in space. Other nations can spend more on space, but, like America, there is a terrible misalignment of spending and taxing priorities. So, on Maher’s two largest points, Earth being first and money, his argument appears to be very weak.

Another argument Maher made is just downright silly. Claiming that evolution had shaped humanity to only thrive on Earth has a major fundamental flaw—evolution has also shaped us to possess enough cognitive abilities to develop the needed tools and machinery to venture into space. Therefore, why should we restrain ourselves to only one planet if the technology can be created to explore new ones? Humanity can explore space, and we should not squander that gift.

Finally, Maher said he does not believe we should become a multi-planet species, which a perfectly valid opinion to have—but I must disagree. Humanity cannot chain itself to only living on Earth forever because it goes against our very nature to push boundaries and explore. Not to mention the possibility that a threat to human existence could come from space, such as an asteroid. If we choose to pull back on exploring deep space, our chances of averting that disaster diminish. Continuing to be a one planet species will likely sign a premature death certificate for human civilization as we know it.

My reaction to Maher's little rant. (GIF Credit: giphy.com)

I understand that the segment was designed to be funny, and Maher has a point about not destroying Earth, obviously. My problem was the strong implication that humanity should stay grounded on Earth simply because it is our original home. Bill Maher’s thoughts on Mars colonization and exploration appeal to the lowest, simplest, naivest, and darkest aspects of humanity. This type of appeal has often been used throughout history to exploit people through populist movements.

Constantly gravitating towards the simplest answer in space policy, or public policy in general, usually leads to less than favorable results. We can take care of Earth and colonize Mars at the same time. I never said it would be easy, but that is what makes each challenge a worthy endeavor. Civilization can do amazing things assuming we have the courage to repel the cynics and the doubters. Hence, the real thrust behind my critique—attacks directed towards exploration and advancement will ultimately leave humanity stuck in the cave. 

Can't wait until we explore this beautiful world. (Photo Credit: NASA)

Here's a link to Bill Maher's thoughts on Mars, but be ready for some deep bull sh-t. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mrGFEW2Hb2g

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The Mighty Saturn V

This month Lego released their version of the Saturn V rocket that carried humanity to the Moon, and those kits quickly became backordered. Thankfully, I was able to get my hands on one before they became scarce (otherwise I would not have been a very happy man). Building the kit, pictured below, motivated me to do a quick write up on the basics of the Saturn V for all of you.

Lego's version of the Saturn V (Image Credit: Lego)

Wernher von Braun, the Saturn V’s architect, created the vehicle to meet the needs of the lunar orbit rendezvous (LOR) technique employed by NASA for the Apollo program. To complete a mission using LOR, a new rocket would have to be designed to far exceed the capabilities of von Braun’s previous Saturn rockets, which were much smaller except for later Nova rocket concepts. At one point, NASA officials considered launching several smaller Saturn boosters to assemble a lunar landing spacecraft. Direct ascent lunar mission options were also considered early in NASA's time, but that proposal had many difficulties. These proposals were ultimately disregarded in favor of the LOR approach, which led to the creation of the Saturn V program in January 1962.

Launching for the first time in November 1967 with the mission of Apollo 4, the rocket famously shook Walter Cronkite’s temporary studio so much ceiling tiles fell (video link at the end). All crewed Apollo missions, minus Apollo 7, launched on the massive rocket. Thus allowing the Saturn V to be etched in history.  Sadly, the Saturn V’s final launch was the Skylab 1 mission in 1973—ending years of successful launches.

Apollo 4 launch in November 1967. (Photo Credit: NASA)

The Saturn V currently holds the title of most powerful rocket ever flown, and it remains the only rocket to carry human beings beyond low Earth orbit. Composed of three stages and the Apollo spacecraft hardware, the massive machine stood 363 feet tall. For reference, the Statue of Liberty stands at 305 feet.

During a launch, the first stage, the S-IC, produced 7.5 million pounds of thrust using five F-1 engines. That stage lasted until 2 minutes and 42 seconds after launch when explosive bolts fire and the stage falls into the Atlantic Ocean. Shortly after first stage shutdown, the second stage, the S-II, fires five J-2 rocket engines to push the payload closer to low Earth orbit. A bit after nine minutes the second stage separates, and the third stage, the S-IVB, ignites to make the final push into orbit. The S-IVB fires for over two minutes (2 minutes and 30 seconds) and puts the spacecraft(s) into a parking orbit. At this point the crew would check out the spacecraft before committing to a trans-lunar injection—the S-IVB engine burn maneuver that takes the crew towards the Moon. Once the trans-lunar injection burn is complete, the command/service module separates from the third stage to dock and extract the lunar module. With a job well done, the S-IVB heads into space or is directed to crash into the Moon.

Whenher von Braun standing next to Saturn V first stage engines. (Photo Credit: NASA)

If launching a rocket that weighed over 6 million pounds at liftoff and separating stages to ensure a lunar voyage sounds damn difficult, you are correct. Considering that 1960s technology was employed to make this happen, the task seems even greater given the end of the decade deadline set by President Kennedy. The Saturn V was not only a showcase in our engineering and technology at the time, but a testament to the ability of people to create complex machines to enable our pursuits. I would give anything to have seen more Saturn V rockets built for additional lunar missions. My imagination runs wild with what upgrades could have been made to the Saturn V for voyages to Venus or Mars. Having said that, we can hope the Space Launch System now being built by NASA will continue the legacy of the mighty Saturn V in our lifetimes.

AND as promised, the Walter Cronkite Apollo 4 liftoff video!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1uoVfZpx5dY

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Sources Used:

Apollo 8: The NASA Mission Reports by Robert Godwin

https://www.space.com/18422-apollo-saturn-v-moon-rocket-nasa-infographic.html

https://history.msfc.nasa.gov/saturn_apollo/documents/Saturn_V.pdf

Keeping Up with Human Spaceflight News

Staying informed about news in general has been quite the task lately, and human spaceflight news is no different. Over the past few months two large and important stories jumped out of NASA circles. First, as mentioned in a previous blog post, the Trump administration asked NASA to evaluate placing a crew on the first flight of the Space Launch System (SLS). Earlier this month, that plan was formally ruled out by NASA officials. Second, a relatively detailed definition for a lunar orbiting space station came out of NASA. Although the lunar space station story is from March, it has taken me this long to get a grip on my feelings and thoughts—albeit a loose one. Before I rush to my opinions, let’s cover some background information for both stories.

Before the Trump administration requested NASA to study placing a crew on the first flight of the SLS, the schedule called for Exploration Mission 1 (EM-1) to fly the Orion spacecraft around the Moon without a crew. A second Exploration Mission (EM-2) would fly astronauts around the Moon around 2021 (hopefully). This strategy of an uncrewed EM-1 mission followed by a crewed EM-2 mission still won the approval of NASA managers, thus rejecting the idea proposed by the administration. A crewed EM-1 mission would have increased costs, delayed the launch date, and would have been much riskier. These factors ultimately led NASA to stick with the current crew and mission arrangement.

  

Artist Concept of  SLS Block 1A During Launch (Credit: NASA)

While NASA was tinkering with the idea of adding a crew to the EM-1 mission, details emerged on the agency’s planned lunar orbit (cis-lunar orbit) space station. Construction will begin in the early 2020s with a launch of the SLS carrying the new station’s Power and Propulsion Bus (PPB). Other modules, structures concerned with habitation, will be added to the PPB in later missions. A Russian airlock module will also be added for easier station based spacewalking. Maximizing consumable usage and minimizing waste will be critical design goals for the station, which will prove to be no easy task. Each crewed shift on the lunar outpost will feature a dedicated supply vehicle—NASA still must determine whether the supply ship will be provided by a public or private organization. Although, I would place my bets on a private company providing the supply vehicle.

Overall, the lunar station will provide a platform for dress rehearsal Mars missions and a hub for returning robotic and crewed spacecraft from lunar surface operations. Design flexibilities will also allow Russian and possibly Chinese spacecraft to use the station.

NASA Lunar Space Station Concept (Credit: Popular Mechanics)

Now my opinions.

Leaving the EM-1 mission uncrewed appears to be the best option. Placing a crew on this mission would suffer from serious drawbacks (increased cost, delayed launch, and higher risk). Even with an uptick in funding, the increased risk associated with adding a crew serves no valid purpose without a clear goal in mind. Apollo 8’s trip around the Moon was risky as well, but the risk was taken to increase the likelihood of meeting President Kennedy’s goal. Developing complex hardware like the Orion spacecraft and SLS should be taken in a step-by-step fashion to decrease risk and increase the chances of success towards the end goal. This process can be hastened with adequate funding and human resources, but that is not the case with the American space program right now.

Mixed emotions do not begin to describe my feelings towards the lunar space station concept. Frankly, I am an advocate of virtually any human space exploration that extends beyond low Earth orbit. However, I feel using the lunar station as a means for Mars mission testing or getting to the Red Planet expends more resources and time than a direct path. I would advocate for a path similar to the one outlined in Robert Zubrin’s A Case for Mars. Building and testing habitation, propulsion, and Mars landing hardware in the lunar environment before traveling to Mars could be more efficient. For example, NASA could build and test the Mars mission hardware by long duration Moon landing missions. Eventually, this could lead to an Apollo 10 style dress rehearsal for a Mars landing once NASA officials felt necessary objectives were met.

Another issue I have with the proposed lunar station revolves around Russian involvement. It is no secret tensions between the United States and Russia have been high for many years now, and this tension could derail future joint endeavors. U.S. and Russian officials continue to cooperate on the International Space Station because the project is already completed. I would advise NASA to work with the Europeans, Canadians, and Japanese on future projects to avoid potential issues with Russia stemming from international politics.  

I would love to hear your thoughts on either issue!! And, as always, check out The Space Endeavor’s Facebook page for more space related content!

Sources used:

http://www.popularmechanics.com/space/a25872/nasa-cis-lunar-orbit/

https://spaceflightnow.com/2017/05/12/nasa-rules-out-crew-on-first-sls-flight/

The Greatest Astronaut

The month of April is busy for those interested in space history. Not only did the first spaceflight in human history occur in this month, but the first launch of the space shuttle also lifted off. Additionally, the Apollo 13 accident and the Apollo 16 Moon landing occurred. Even with all of that history, this month clearly belongs to one astronaut, and he also happens to be the greatest in history. Well, according to me. 

John W. Young (I didn't leave you hanging for long) is the ultimate American astronaut, and he practically owns the month of April in space history. Two of his six missions, Apollo 16 and STS-1, launched during April. Although these are his most famous missions, his legacy extends far beyond those flights.

John Young's 1986 NASA portrait. (Credit: NASA)

Captain Young graduated from the Georgia Institute of Technology in 1952 earning a degree in aeronautical engineering with highest honors. After graduation, he entered the U.S. Navy and eventually began flight training. By 1959, he had graduated from the U.S. Navy Test Pilot School, which allowed him to test the F-8 Crusader and the F-4 Phantom. Young set time-to-climb records in the Phantom before entering NASA.

In 1962, John Young was selected as an astronaut. Three years later Young joined Gus Grissom for the Gemini 3 mission, which was to test the crewed Gemini capsule in space. Later in the Gemini program, Young would become the Commander of Gemini 10 with pilot Mike Collins. This mission tested rendezvous and docking procedures along with an EVA by his pilot. These missions honed the spaceflight skills he would need during Project Apollo and beyond.

John Young in the Gemini flight suit. (Credit: NASA)

John Young’s first Apollo mission came with the lunar landing dress rehearsal of Apollo 10. For this important test, Captain Young served as the command module pilot while Tom Stafford and Gene Cernan flew the lunar module around the Moon. Years later, his chance to land on the Moon would come during his command of Apollo 16. Ken Mattingly and Charlie Duke would join him, with Duke helping land the Lunar Module Orion. Their mission explored the Descartes Highlands, where the lunar explorers gathered over 200 pounds of rocks and drove over 16 miles with a lunar rover. Nearly two years after returning from the Moon, Young became the Chief of the Astronaut Office—serving in that position until 1987.

Young's famous flag salute on Apollo 16. (Credit: NASA)

However, going into administrative duties didn’t ground Young. In 1981, he took command of the world’s greatest test flight with STS-1. He flew Space Shuttle Columbia along with Pilot Bob Crippen to a picture-perfect landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Flying Columbia on that very first mission was one of the riskiest flights in spaceflight history because the vehicle had not been partially tested in space before a crew was placed aboard. John Young’s legendary career would come to a close with STS-9—his sixth spaceflight. Space would put Young to the test on that mission. Just before reentry, two general purpose computers on Columbia failed. After that problem was resolved, two auxiliary power units caught fire during landing. With all of these issues, Young still guided Columbia home.

Young would go on to serve in administrative roles at NASA during the 1990s before retiring in 2004. Throughout Captain Young’s career he pushed the boundaries of space exploration proving his skills as a commander and pilot time after time. His famous Southern drawl and quiet demeanor served as a cornerstone for the NASA Astronaut Office through many years. John Young has and will continue to inspire countless others to continue his legacy of exploration to objects far beyond the Moon. He may not be a household name in America or around the world like Neil Armstrong or John Glenn—but he should be.  

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Sources:

https://www.jsc.nasa.gov/Bios/htmlbios/young.html

https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-9.html

“Into the Black: The Extraordinary Untold Story of the First Flight of the Space Shuttle Columbia and the Astronauts Who Flew Her.” By Rowland White